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IWA Reference Papers Archive



Current Papers

  • Sanitation Challenges and Solutions (2008)
    The UN estimates that some 2.5 billion people lack access to ‘improved’ sanitation and many commentators agree that the actual number without access to sanitation is actually much higher. It is estimated that 450,000 people need to gain access to this basic service every day between now and 2015 in order to achieve the internationally agreed Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). On current trends, sub-Saharan Africa will not achieve the sanitation target until the end of the century. Whilst rural areas currently bear the greatest burden in terms of a deficit in access to sanitation (in absolute numbers), the imperative over the next generation will be in cities and towns. The challenge in providing adequate urban sanitation services is becoming increasingly complicated because in many countries, particularly the poorest countries, cities are growing faster than services can be provided. Moreover, cities are becoming increasingly ‘informal’ – or characterized by unplanned settlements. This need is concentrated in the poorest countries that lack the financial means to support widespread public investment, and in cities with nascent and underdeveloped utilities. Despite the challenge, many utilities and urban governments are charged with the responsibility of providing at least basic sanitation services to all their customers or citizens. In a climate of constrained access to capital, these basic needs have to be effectively planned to provide the best possible value for money.

  • Sustainable Cost Recovery (August 2006)
    The subject of sustainable cost recovery can be approached in a number of ways, and consequently, several different terms are also used (sustainable cost recovery, full-cost recovery, etc.). The most important consideration is the need for a level of cost recovery, achieved through a combination of water service charges and subsidies, which will enable sustainable water services. However, affordability and efficiency have to be taken into account, so that cost recovery relates only to necessary costs.

  • Bonn Principles Series for Safe Drinking Water (2006 & 2007)
    The Bonn Charter sets out a number of key principles which need to be adopted by all those contributing to the provision and operation of water supply systems. These include specific references to institutional and governance issues and particularly the roles and responsibilities of the different actors involved in the whole water supply process. However, whilst the concepts and approaches described are universally applicable, it is clear that considerable adaptation will be necessary in each region of the world to allow for the different state of development, cultural, socio-economic and other local variables.


Historic Papers

  • Lead in Drinking Water (June 2002)
    Lead can be toxic for human beings: high levels of lead in the blood can interfere with the formation of red blood cells, cause reduced birth weight or premature birth, delay physical and mental development in babies and young children, and impair mental abilities in children in general. In adults, lead can increase blood pressure and interfere with hearing. At high exposure levels, lead can cause anaemia, kidney damage and mental retardation. Therefore the World Health Organisation (WHO) decreased the guideline for lead in drinking water to 10 µg/l based on an average weekly intake.

  • Losses from Water Supply Systems: Standard Terminology and Recommended Performance Measures (October 2000)
    The quantity of water lost is an important indicator of the positive or negative evolution of water distribution efficiency, both in individual years and as a trend over a period of years. High and increasing annual volumes of water losses, which are an indicator of ineffective planning and construction, and low operational maintenance activities, should be the trigger for initiating an active leakage control programme.

  • Rapid Microbiological Monitoring Methods: The Status Quo (July 2000)
    The purpose of this report is to create a broader understanding among IWA members and other interested parties of developments in the field of rapid methods for microbiological monitoring of water. Microbiological monitoring of source and drinking water is also associated with several other issues of concern that have never been fully resolved

  • Quality Monitoring of Surface Water Resources for Drinking Water Production (May 2000)
    In recent years, water quality monitoring has become increasingly important as a method of answering questions of both the public and governmental regulators regarding the safety and suitability of drinking water supplies. The purpose of this Blue Page Document is to provide drinking water utilities with a methodology to design water quality monitoring systems that will provide useful resource management information to answer questions and set water quality management goals.

  • Media Relations (September 1999)
    Freshwater is key to sustainable development. Without adequate water supply food production declines, human health fails, the natural environment suffers and economic development is limited. Increasing population and increasing standards of living drive demand ever higher for drinking water, for irrigation of crops and for process water for industry. As these sectors take more water, less water is available for the natural environment. The World Bank estimates that some one billion people do not have adequate access to freshwater and two billion are denied adequate sanitation. So a critical challenge for society is to address these issues and strike the balance in the provision of future water services.

  • The Practice of Chlorination: Application, Efficacy, Problems and Alternatives (August 1997)
    Chlorination for disinfection of drinking waters has proven effective in the fight against waterborne pathogenic organisms since the middle to late 19th century. In most cases, chlorination is still the least costly and often the best means to disinfect potable water supplies and control bacterial growth in the distribution system. This position paper will provide an overview discussion on the practice of chlorination in water treatment. The discussion will cover the following topics: general chlorination practice, chlorine disinfection capabilities, by-product formation, current regulations and use of alternative oxidants for disinfection.